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2022SynthesisConflict and shared careHow do children experience shared care?
Trine B. Johansen, Hege Nøkleby, Lars J. Langøien & Tiril C. Borge
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The review found that children experienced shared care in different ways. Some found different rules and routines, exchange days, distance between homes, friendships, activities, and belonging difficult. Most children in the qualitative studies were satisfied with shared care because they valued substantial contact with both parents. Relationships within the family, parental conflict, communication, parental health, and finances reduced or sometimes removed measured differences between care arrangements.
What the researchers concludedThe reviewers concluded that no single arrangement can be recommended for every family from the available evidence. Family relationships, communication, conflict, practical conditions, flexibility, and the child's views may be as important as the percentage of time itself.
Read it with this limit in mind Only one eligible recent prospective cohort addressed causal outcome differences
Custody and living arrangements after parents separate: Implications for children and adolescents: A systematic review
Trine B. Johansen, Hege Nøkleby, Lars J. Langøien & Tiril C. Borge (2022). Custody and living arrangements after parents separate: Implications for children and adolescents: A systematic review. Norwegian Institute of Public Health.
2021ObservationalShared parentingDoes shared care affect mental health at seven?
Anders Hjern, Malin Bergström, Emma Fransson & Stine Kjaer Urhoj
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Joint physical custody meant living essentially equally with both parents. At age seven, 14.4% of children in joint physical custody had a high maternal-reported difficulties score, compared with 15.6% in sole physical custody without a new partner and 20.0% in sole physical custody with a new partner. After adjustment for measured pre-separation family, socioeconomic, and parental mental-health factors, the researchers found no statistically significant differences between the post-separation living arrangements.
What the researchers concludedThe researchers concluded that living arrangements after parental separation had minimal short-term influence on mental health at age seven. They said the similar adjusted outcomes did not support the hypothesis that joint physical custody damages young children's mental health, while retaining important limits on that interpretation.
Read it with this limit in mind The study was observational and cannot show that the living arrangement caused the outcome
Living arrangements after parental separation have minimal impact on mental health at age 7 years
Anders Hjern, Malin Bergström, Emma Fransson & Stine Kjaer Urhoj (2021). Living arrangements after parental separation have minimal impact on mental health at age 7 years. Acta Paediatrica, 110(9), 2586-2593. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.15916
2021ObservationalConflict and shared careDoes conflict change shared-care outcomes?
Lara Augustijn
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Shared care was associated with better child mental health overall, while high parental conflict was associated with worse mental health. When conflict was high, children in shared care and children living mainly with one parent had similar levels of mental health problems. The shared-care advantage was therefore not visible in the high-conflict group.
What the researchers concludedThe author concluded that shared care is not a one-size-fits-all arrangement and that its mental-health advantage in this sample appeared when parental conflict was low.
Read it with this limit in mind Cross-sectional design cannot establish what caused the outcome
The relation between joint physical custody, interparental conflict, and children's mental health
Lara Augustijn (2021). The relation between joint physical custody, interparental conflict, and children's mental health. Journal of Family Research, 33(3), 613–636. https://doi.org/10.20377/jfr-621
2019ObservationalConflict and shared careWhat makes two homes work day to day?
Malin Bergström, Anna Sarkadi, Anders Hjern & Emma Fransson
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Parents described using communication books, similar basic sleep and food routines, schedule changes, preschool transfers, and extra contact when a child missed the other parent. Some accepted different rules in each home and believed children could adapt. Others found the differences difficult. Most parents thought their children had adapted well, with the notable exception of families experiencing continuing conflict.
What the researchers concludedThe authors concluded that these parents worked actively to make shared care function. Communication and adjustment were important, but the study did not show that both homes must be identical. Ongoing conflict and lack of confidence in the other parent's care were the clearest sources of dissatisfaction.
Read it with this limit in mind Parents were volunteers and may not represent all separated families
We also communicate through a book in the diaper bag: Separated parents' ways to coparent and promote adaptation of their 1 to 4 year olds in equal joint physical custody
Malin Bergström, Anna Sarkadi, Anders Hjern & Emma Fransson (2019). We also communicate through a book in the diaper bag: Separated parents' ways to coparent and promote adaptation of their 1 to 4 year olds in equal joint physical custody. PLOS ONE, 14(4), e0214913. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214913
2018SynthesisConflict and shared careDoes more contact help when conflict persists?
Nicole E. Mahrer, Karey L. O'Hara, Irwin N. Sandler & Sharlene A. Wolchik
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The review found a genuinely mixed pattern. Four studies linked more father contact with more child problems when conflict remained high several years after divorce, and three of those results differed by the child's sex. Studies measuring conflict during divorce or within the next two or three years were mixed. Three studies found no significant interaction between conflict and parenting time. Better-quality parenting by either parent was associated with fewer child problems in several high-conflict samples.
What the researchers concludedThe authors concluded that prolonged high conflict may make greater parenting time harder for some children, while good parenting by either parent can be protective. They did not support a universal rule for or against shared care and called for decisions to consider conflict duration, parenting quality, child characteristics, and the limits of the evidence.
Read it with this limit in mind Only 11 heterogeneous studies were reviewed
Does shared parenting help or hurt children in high-conflict divorced families?
Nicole E. Mahrer, Karey L. O'Hara, Irwin N. Sandler & Sharlene A. Wolchik (2018). Does shared parenting help or hurt children in high-conflict divorced families? Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 59(4), 324–347. https://doi.org/10.1080/10502556.2018.1454200
2024SynthesisMultiple attachmentsDo two secure relationships support language?
Dagan, Schuengel, Verhage, Madigan, Roisman et al.
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Children with secure attachment relationships to both parents had somewhat better language skills than children with one secure parent relationship or none. No statistically significant difference was detected between the mother-only and father-only secure groups. The study did not establish that their effects were equal.
What the researchers concludedThe authors interpreted the findings as supporting the comparable importance of attachment to both parents for the developmental outcome studied.
Read it with this limit in mind Seven contributing studies, published from 1985–2014
Configurations of mother–child and father–child attachment relationships as predictors of child language competence: An individual participant data meta-analysis
Dagan, Schuengel, Verhage, Madigan, Roisman et al. (2024). Configurations of mother–child and father–child attachment relationships as predictors of child language competence: An individual participant data meta-analysis. Child Development, 95(1), 50–69. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13998
2026SynthesisFather involvementHow does father involvement relate to development?
Que Zheng, Liman Cai, Peishan Huang, Wei Huang & Yushan Ni
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The review reported small positive associations with children's social-emotional competence for positive engagement (r = .12), warmth and responsiveness (r = .18) and constructive guidance and monitoring, termed control (r = .10). Thirty-five studies were longitudinal and 30 were cross-sectional.
What the researchers concludedThe authors concluded that direct positive engagement and responsive fathering make a measurable contribution to social-emotional development during early childhood.
Read it with this limit in mind Associations do not prove that father involvement alone caused the outcomes
Father's involvement is critical in social-emotional development in early childhood: A meta-analysis
Que Zheng, Liman Cai, Peishan Huang, Wei Huang & Yushan Ni (2026). Father's involvement is critical in social-emotional development in early childhood: A meta-analysis. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 74, 26-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2025.08.001
2008SynthesisFather involvementWhat does father involvement predict over time?
Anna Sarkadi, Robert Kristiansson, Frank Oberklaid & Sven Bremberg
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Twenty-two of the 24 publications reported positive effects associated with father involvement. Sixteen studies controlled for socioeconomic status. Reported areas included behavioural, psychological, cognitive, and social outcomes.
What the researchers concludedThe authors concluded that there was evidence supporting a positive influence of father engagement on children's development.
Read it with this limit in mind The included studies used different definitions of father involvement
Fathers' involvement and children's developmental outcomes: A systematic review of longitudinal studies
Anna Sarkadi, Robert Kristiansson, Frank Oberklaid & Sven Bremberg (2008). Fathers' involvement and children's developmental outcomes: A systematic review of longitudinal studies. Acta Paediatrica, 97(2), 153–158. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2007.00572.x
2021SynthesisFather involvementHow does father involvement relate to behaviour?
Jin Zhang, Yunyan Liu & Tianqiang Hu
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Positive father involvement had small negative correlations with both internalising and externalising problem behaviour. Negative father involvement had a moderate positive correlation with internalising problems.
What the researchers concludedThe findings support the relevance of both the quality and form of father involvement to preschool children's emotional and behavioural adjustment.
Read it with this limit in mind The pooled relationships were correlational
A meta-analysis of the relationship between father involvement and problem behaviour among preschool children
Jin Zhang, Yunyan Liu & Tianqiang Hu (2021). A meta-analysis of the relationship between father involvement and problem behaviour among preschool children. Early Child Development and Care, 191(11), 1802–1824. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2019.1679127
2013SynthesisFather involvementHow does fathering relate to early learning?
Christine McWayne, Jason T. Downer, Rodrigo Campos & Robby D. Harris
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The frequency of positive engagement and the quality of fathering had small-to-moderate associations with early learning across social and cognitive domains.
What the researchers concludedThe authors described fathers as an important influence during the early-childhood period when children are developing social, emotional, and cognitive competence.
Read it with this limit in mind The studies were observational
Father involvement during early childhood and its association with children's early learning: A meta-analysis
Christine McWayne, Jason T. Downer, Rodrigo Campos & Robby D. Harris (2013). Father involvement during early childhood and its association with children's early learning: A meta-analysis. Early Education and Development, 24(6), 898–922. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2013.746932
2021SynthesisFather involvementWhat does father-child play contribute?
Erin Louise Robinson, Jennifer StGeorge & Emily Elsa Freeman
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Father-child play was studied across cognitive, language, behavioural, emotional, and social outcomes. Positive and sensitive play behaviours were often associated with favourable outcomes, but results differed by play type and quality.
What the researchers concludedThe review supports father-child play as one pathway through which fathers can contribute directly to development, while rejecting the assumption that all play has the same effect.
Read it with this limit in mind The studies used varied play and outcome measures
A systematic review of father-child play interactions and the impacts on child development
Erin Louise Robinson, Jennifer StGeorge & Emily Elsa Freeman (2021). A systematic review of father-child play interactions and the impacts on child development. Children, 8(5), 389. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8050389
2013SynthesisFather involvementWhat can stronger studies tell us about father absence?
Sara McLanahan, Laura Tach & Daniel Schneider
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More rigorous designs continued to find negative effects, but they were smaller than traditional cross-sectional estimates. Evidence was strongest and most consistent for high-school graduation, children's social-emotional adjustment, and adult mental health.
What the researchers concludedThe review concluded that father absence can affect offspring wellbeing, while showing why simple father-present versus father-absent comparisons overstate causation.
Read it with this limit in mind Father absence occurs through different pathways that are not interchangeable
The causal effects of father absence
Sara McLanahan, Laura Tach & Daniel Schneider (2013). The causal effects of father absence. Annual Review of Sociology, 39, 399–427. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145704
2020SynthesisBreastfeeding and attachmentDoes breastfeeding determine secure attachment?
Katja Linde, Franziska Lehnig, Michaela Nagl & Anette Kersting
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Four of seven child-attachment studies linked longer breastfeeding with greater attachment security after measured covariates. Studies did not find a significant security difference between breastfeeding and bottle-feeding, and breastfeeding immediately after birth was not associated with later child attachment.
What the researchers concludedThe authors found some evidence of a possible positive contribution from breastfeeding, but said the effect was likely small and stronger prospective research was needed.
Read it with this limit in mind Only 11 studies met the review criteria
The association between breastfeeding and attachment: A systematic review
Katja Linde, Franziska Lehnig, Michaela Nagl & Anette Kersting (2020). The association between breastfeeding and attachment: A systematic review. Midwifery, 81, 102592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2019.102592
2018SynthesisShared parentingWhat did 60 shared-care studies find?
Linda Nielsen
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The review examined 60 studies. In 34 studies, children in shared care did better on every outcome measured. In 14, they did better on some outcomes and the same on the rest. In 6, the groups did equally well. In the final 6, shared-care children had one poorer result but did equally well or better on the other outcomes. None of the 60 studies found that shared-care children did worse on every outcome measured.
What the researchers concludedThe author concluded that the pattern was not explained solely by family income, parental conflict, or parent–child relationship quality in the reviewed literature.
Read it with this limit in mind Narrative review rather than a pooled meta-analysis
Joint versus sole physical custody: Children’s outcomes independent of parent–child relationships, income, and conflict in 60 studies
Linda Nielsen (2018). Joint versus sole physical custody: Children’s outcomes independent of parent–child relationships, income, and conflict in 60 studies. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 59(4), 247–281. https://doi.org/10.1080/10502556.2018.1454204
2017SynthesisConflict and shared careDoes conflict automatically rule out shared care?
Linda Nielsen
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Nielsen reviewed 17 studies that accounted for parental conflict when comparing shared physical custody with children living mainly with one parent. She reported that 16 found better outcomes on most measures for the shared-care group after conflict was considered. Across overlapping outcome categories, all 9 studies assessing father relationships or stress-related health favoured shared care; 6 of 9 behavioural studies favoured shared care and 3 found equal outcomes; 8 of 12 social and emotional studies favoured shared care and 4 found equal outcomes; and 2 of 5 academic studies favoured shared care while 3 found equal outcomes.
What the researchers concludedThe author concluded that conflict, including legal conflict, should not by itself rule out shared physical custody. She treated the quality of each parent-child relationship as a stronger average predictor, while excluding coercive controlling violence, ongoing severe abuse, neglect, and other circumstances requiring protection from the ordinary application of the review.
Read it with this limit in mind Narrative review rather than a preregistered systematic review
Re-examining the research on parental conflict, coparenting, and custody arrangements
Linda Nielsen (2017). Re-examining the research on parental conflict, coparenting, and custody arrangements. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 23(2), 211–231. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000109
2017ObservationalOvernight careAre early overnights linked with later relationships?
William V. Fabricius & Go Woon Suh
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Young adults who had spent more nights with their fathers before age three reported stronger later relationships with their fathers. Their relationships with their mothers were not weaker. The pattern remained after the researchers took account of several measured differences between the families, but the study could not prove that overnights caused the later relationships.
What the researchers concludedThe authors interpreted the findings as support for frequent overnight parenting time in ordinary circumstances, while explicitly noting that the design did not establish causality.
Read it with this limit in mind Retrospective reports can be affected by recall
Should infants and toddlers have frequent overnight parenting time with fathers? The policy debate and new data
William V. Fabricius & Go Woon Suh (2017). Should infants and toddlers have frequent overnight parenting time with fathers? The policy debate and new data. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 23(1), 68–84. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000108
2014ConsensusParenting plansShould age alone rule out overnights?
Richard A. Warshak, with endorsers listed in the article
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The report challenged blanket restrictions on young children's overnight care and said courts must consider the risk of weakening or losing the father-child relationship as well as possible attachment concerns. Citing the Stanford Custody Project, it reported father dropout of 56% with daytime-only contact versus 1.6% with overnight contact for children under three when their parents separated. For children aged three to five, the reported figures were 49% versus 7.7%. For families described as high conflict, Warshak argued against an automatic exclusion. He recommended examining the source and pattern of conflict, the quality of each parent's care, and whether practical protections such as school, daycare, or neutral-location transfers could keep children away from hostile exchanges.
What the researchers concludedThe report concluded that, in ordinary safe circumstances, regular care including overnights can help fathers remain committed and involved. It did not propose one schedule for every child. It said conflict must be understood rather than treated as a label, and that ordinary recommendations do not apply automatically where violence, abuse, neglect, coercive control, or another serious safety risk requires protection.
Read it with this limit in mind Consensus reports are not primary empirical studies
Social science and parenting plans for young children: A consensus report
Richard A. Warshak, with endorsers listed in the article (2014). Social science and parenting plans for young children: A consensus report. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 20(1), 46–67. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000005
2013ObservationalOvernight careWere infant overnights linked with insecurity?
Tornello, Emery, Rowen, Potter, Ocker & Xu
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The study produced mixed results. Infants who frequently stayed overnight were more likely to be classified as insecurely attached, although the study could not prove that overnights caused this difference. The toddler result was uncertain. When the children were assessed at ages 3 and 5, frequent overnights did not predict more emotional or behavioural adjustment problems.
What the researchers concludedThe authors described the issue as understudied and reported different patterns by developmental stage and outcome.
Read it with this limit in mind Observational design
Overnight custody arrangements, attachment, and adjustment among very young children
Tornello, Emery, Rowen, Potter, Ocker & Xu (2013). Overnight custody arrangements, attachment, and adjustment among very young children. Journal of Marriage and Family, 75(4), 871–885. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12045
2002SynthesisShared parentingHow did children in joint custody compare?
Robert Bauserman
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Children in joint legal or physical custody had better average results than children in sole custody for emotional and behavioural problems, self-esteem, family relationships, general wellbeing, and coping with divorce. Their average results were similar to children in families where the parents had not separated.
What the researchers concludedThe author stated that the results were consistent with joint custody being advantageous in some cases, possibly through continued positive involvement with both parents.
Read it with this limit in mind Joint legal and joint physical custody were combined in parts of the analysis
Child adjustment in joint-custody versus sole-custody arrangements: A meta-analytic review
Robert Bauserman (2002). Child adjustment in joint-custody versus sole-custody arrangements: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Family Psychology, 16(1), 91–102. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.16.1.91
1999ObservationalOvernight careWhat attachment concerns appeared in one infant study?
Judith Solomon & Carol George
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Infants in the overnight group were more often placed in concerning attachment categories than infants in the married-parent comparison group. Within the overnight group, the most concerning attachment pattern was more common where parents communicated poorly, had high conflict, or struggled to help the infant feel emotionally protected.
What the researchers concludedThe authors linked concern about repeated separations to conditions in which parents could not provide adequate psychological support to the infant.
Read it with this limit in mind Small separated-family subgroups
The development of attachment in separated and divorced families: Effects of overnight visitation, parent and couple variables
Judith Solomon & Carol George (1999). The development of attachment in separated and divorced families: Effects of overnight visitation, parent and couple variables. Attachment & Human Development, 1(1), 2–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616739900134011
1997SynthesisAttachment theoryDoes responsive care support secure attachment?
Marianne S. De Wolff & Marinus H. van IJzendoorn
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Children were more likely to have secure attachments when caregivers noticed their signals and responded appropriately. The relationship was meaningful but modest, so responsive care matters without being the only influence on attachment.
What the researchers concludedThe authors concluded that responsive care matters, but attachment cannot be explained by one caregiver behaviour alone. The child, family, stress, culture, and wider caregiving context also matter.
Read it with this limit in mind Substantial variation in constructs and measures across studies
Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment
Marianne S. De Wolff & Marinus H. van IJzendoorn (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, 68(4), 571–591. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb04218.x
1999SynthesisAttachment theoryWhat does disorganised attachment predict?
van IJzendoorn, Schuengel & Bakermans-Kranenburg
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The review found that trained researchers could identify the pattern with reasonable consistency. Children given this classification were more likely, on average, to have later difficulty managing stress or controlling outward behaviour such as aggression. Many children did not develop those problems.
What the researchers concludedThe authors treated disorganised attachment as a warning sign that may increase risk, not a diagnosis or a prediction of what must happen to an individual child.
Read it with this limit in mind Contributing studies varied in population and measurement
Disorganized attachment in early childhood: Meta-analysis of precursors, concomitants, and sequelae
van IJzendoorn, Schuengel & Bakermans-Kranenburg (1999). Disorganized attachment in early childhood: Meta-analysis of precursors, concomitants, and sequelae. Development and Psychopathology, 11(2), 225–249. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579499002035
2000SynthesisParenting plansWhat contact did Kelly and Lamb recommend?
Joan B. Kelly & Michael E. Lamb
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The review recommended frequent contact with both parents for young children when both relationships were established and care was adequate. For children younger than two or three, the authors preferred contact every day or every other day. They considered most two-year-olds capable of two consecutive overnights with either parent, while advising against five-to-seven-day separations for toddlers. By approximately seven or eight, most children could usually manage five-to-seven-day separations.
What the researchers concludedThe authors supported preserving meaningful relationships with both parents through schedules matched to the child's developmental capacity. Their examples show that equal care and the length of each residential block are separate questions. They did not propose a strict rule limiting consecutive nights away from either parent to one night for each year of the child's age, or one schedule for every child.
Read it with this limit in mind A research-to-practice review rather than a trial of particular custody schedules
Using child development research to make appropriate custody and access decisions for young children
Joan B. Kelly & Michael E. Lamb (2000). Using child development research to make appropriate custody and access decisions for young children. Family and Conciliation Courts Review, 38(3), 297–311. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.174-1617.2000.tb00577.x
2010ObservationalOvernight careWhat did the Australian overnight report find?
Jennifer McIntosh, Bruce Smyth, Margaret Kelaher, Yvonne Wells & Caroline Long
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The report found poorer results on some measures intended to reflect settling and emotional regulation among selected groups of very young children in shared overnight care. The pattern did not appear across every age, measure, or source of information. The authors said age, conflict, established care, and family circumstances should be considered together.
What the researchers concludedThe report urged caution in applying equal-time policy concepts to infants and very young children without developmental and relational assessment.
Read it with this limit in mind Observational data cannot establish that schedules caused outcomes
Post-separation parenting arrangements and developmental outcomes for infants and children: Collected reports
Jennifer McIntosh, Bruce Smyth, Margaret Kelaher, Yvonne Wells & Caroline Long (2010). Post-separation parenting arrangements and developmental outcomes for infants and children: Collected reports. Family Transitions, report prepared for the Australian Government Attorney-General's Department.
2014ConsensusOvernight careCan attachment and both parents' involvement fit together?
Marsha Kline Pruett, Jennifer E. McIntosh & Joan B. Kelly
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The authors described attachment and parental involvement as complementary rather than mutually exclusive. They rejected blanket prohibition while retaining caution about frequent schedules where a relationship is not established or conflict is high.
What the researchers concludedThe authors concluded that planning should protect the child's secure relationships with both parents, while matching the schedule to the child's age, established care, safety, conflict, and ability to manage transitions.
Read it with this limit in mind Consensus integration is not a new causal test
Parental separation and overnight care of young children, Part I: Consensus through theoretical and empirical integration
Marsha Kline Pruett, Jennifer E. McIntosh & Joan B. Kelly (2014). Parental separation and overnight care of young children, Part I: Consensus through theoretical and empirical integration. Family Court Review, 52(2), 240–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcre.12087
2016SynthesisShared parentingWhat did 19 shared-care studies show together?
Amandine Baude, Jessica Pearson & Sylvie Drapeau
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When the 19 studies were combined, children in shared care had slightly better emotional, behavioural, and social outcomes on average. The difference was small. Families were not randomly assigned, so the review could not prove that shared care caused the advantage.
What the researchers concludedThe authors concluded that the overall pattern favoured shared care, while recognising that family differences and weaknesses in the original studies limited how confidently cause could be claimed.
Read it with this limit in mind Predominantly observational studies
Child adjustment in joint physical custody versus sole custody: A meta-analytic review
Amandine Baude, Jessica Pearson & Sylvie Drapeau (2016). Child adjustment in joint physical custody versus sole custody: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 57(5), 338–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/10502556.2016.1185203
2019SynthesisShared parentingDo shared-care findings apply across settings?
Anja Steinbach
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The international studies generally reported positive results, but they defined shared care differently, studied different ages and outcomes, and came from different social and legal settings. These differences make a single universal conclusion unsafe.
What the researchers concludedThe author concluded that the overall pattern was encouraging but still debated because shared-care families in the research often had more resources, less conflict, and had chosen the arrangement themselves.
Read it with this limit in mind Samples overrepresented higher-SES and lower-conflict families
Children’s and parents’ well-being in joint physical custody: A literature review
Anja Steinbach (2019). Children’s and parents’ well-being in joint physical custody: A literature review. Family Process, 58(2), 353–369. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12372
2022ConsensusFamily law researchWhat can attachment research tell courts?
Forslund, Granqvist, van IJzendoorn, Sagi-Schwartz, Glaser, Steele, Hammarlund et al.
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The international group agreed that children need familiar caregivers who are safe, benefit from continuity of adequate care, and can benefit from important attachment relationships with several people. The experts disagreed about how much weight courts should place on formal attachment assessments in an individual case.
What the researchers concludedThe authors recommended focusing court assessment on caregiving behaviour and using attachment measures mainly to guide support, not determine custody in isolation.
Read it with this limit in mind Consensus statements integrate evidence but do not eliminate value judgments
Attachment goes to court: Child protection and custody issues
Forslund, Granqvist, van IJzendoorn, Sagi-Schwartz, Glaser, Steele, Hammarlund et al. (2022). Attachment goes to court: Child protection and custody issues. Attachment & Human Development, 24(1), 1–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2020.1840762
2017CommentaryFamily law researchWhich attachment claims did Warshak challenge?
Richard A. Warshak
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Warshak argued that attachment theory was being overstated to claim that a child needs one psychologically primary parent or should generally be kept from overnight care with the other parent. He said the underlying research did not justify that level of certainty.
What the researchers concludedThe article located the 2014 report within a wider dispute about how attachment research was being translated into professional and legal guidance.
Read it with this limit in mind A single-author defence of an earlier consensus report
Stemming the tide of misinformation: International consensus on shared parenting and overnighting
Richard A. Warshak (2017). Stemming the tide of misinformation: International consensus on shared parenting and overnighting. Journal of the American Academy of Matrimonial Lawyers.
2018SynthesisOvernight careDo overnight studies justify blanket restrictions?
Richard A. Warshak
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Warshak argued that prominent cautionary claims exceeded what the observational designs, measures, and reported findings could establish, and that overnight decisions should not be governed by blanket age rules.
What the researchers concludedThe review supported regular overnights in ordinary circumstances while retaining exceptions for safety, poor care, and other child-specific concerns.
Read it with this limit in mind Critical review rather than a preregistered systematic review
Night shifts: Revisiting blanket restrictions on children’s overnights with separated parents
Richard A. Warshak (2018). Night shifts: Revisiting blanket restrictions on children’s overnights with separated parents. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 59(4), 282–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/10502556.2018.1454193
2018ObservationalFamily law researchHow did professionals view Arizona's parenting-time law?
Fabricius, Aaron, Akins, Assini & McElroy
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Judges, lawyers, mental-health providers, and court staff generally viewed the law positively. On average, they did not report an increase or decrease in legal disputes or conflict between parents. They did report small increases in allegations of domestic violence, child abuse, and substance abuse, which the study said required attention.
What the researchers concludedThe authors argued that the policy experience did not support predictions of increased conflict, while documenting concerns that required continued attention.
Read it with this limit in mind Professional perceptions rather than administrative causal estimates
What happens when there is presumptive 50/50 parenting time? An evaluation of Arizona’s new child custody statute
Fabricius, Aaron, Akins, Assini & McElroy (2018). What happens when there is presumptive 50/50 parenting time? An evaluation of Arizona’s new child custody statute. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 59(5), 414–428. https://doi.org/10.1080/10502556.2018.1454196
2014Practice guidanceParenting plansWhat factors shaped the authors' overnight guidance?
Jennifer E. McIntosh, Marsha Kline Pruett & Joan B. Kelly
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Table 1 sets out eight considerations covering safety, relationships, parental mental health, child development and adjustment, coparenting, practical resources and family factors. The authors advised that higher-frequency overnights, defined in the table as five or more per month, were not generally indicated for infants aged 0 to 18 months even when the listed conditions were met. This is the authors' practice guidance, not a finding from a trial of schedules.
What the researchers concludedThe authors sought to protect early developmental security and both lifelong parent–child relationships rather than elevate either aim as an automatic trump.
Read it with this limit in mind Practice framework rather than a primary study
Parental separation and overnight care of young children, Part II: Putting theory into practice
Jennifer E. McIntosh, Marsha Kline Pruett & Joan B. Kelly (2014). Parental separation and overnight care of young children, Part II: Putting theory into practice. Family Court Review, 52(2), 256–262. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcre.12088
2013ObservationalOvernight careWere frequent overnights linked with settling difficulties?
Jennifer E. McIntosh, Bruce M. Smyth & Margaret Kelaher
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Some groups of the youngest children in frequent overnight care had poorer results on selected parent-reported measures intended to reflect settling and emotional regulation. Other measures and age groups did not show the same pattern. Because families chose or received their existing schedules, the paper could not prove that overnights caused the differences.
What the researchers concludedThe authors interpreted the findings as supporting developmental caution and closer attention to the conditions surrounding frequent overnight care for very young children.
Read it with this limit in mind Cross-sectional observational design
Overnight care patterns following parental separation: Associations with emotion regulation in infants and young children
Jennifer E. McIntosh, Bruce M. Smyth & Margaret Kelaher (2013). Overnight care patterns following parental separation: Associations with emotion regulation in infants and young children. Journal of Family Studies, 19(3), 224–239. https://doi.org/10.5172/jfs.2013.19.3.224
2009ObservationalFamily law researchWhat followed Australia's 2006 family-law reforms?
Rae Kaspiew, Matthew Gray, Ruth Weston, Lawrie Moloney, Kelly Hand, Lixia Qu & the Family Law Evaluation Team
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Sixteen percent of the 7,718 children in the care-time analysis were in shared care, defined as 35% to 65% of nights with each parent. Children in shared care were reported as doing as well as or better than children spending 1% to 34% of nights with their father. Fathers reported somewhat higher wellbeing in shared-care groups; mothers generally reported no significant difference between those groups.
What the researchers concludedThe evaluation found no simple one-size-fits-all result. Shared care was functioning well for many families, while safety concerns, violence, conflict, and the circumstances of individual families remained essential to interpreting outcomes and the broader reforms.
Read it with this limit in mind Observational comparisons cannot show that shared care caused better wellbeing
Evaluation of the 2006 Family Law Reforms
Rae Kaspiew, Matthew Gray, Ruth Weston, Lawrie Moloney, Kelly Hand, Lixia Qu & the Family Law Evaluation Team (2009). Evaluation of the 2006 Family Law Reforms. Australian Institute of Family Studies.
2015ObservationalShared parentingDo children in two homes report more symptoms?
Malin Bergström, Emma Fransson, Bitte Modin, Marie Berlin, Per A. Gustafsson & Anders Hjern
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Children whose parents lived together reported the fewest sleep problems, concentration difficulties, headaches, stomach aches, tension, sadness, dizziness, and appetite loss. Among children with separated parents, those in shared care reported fewer of these symptoms than children living mostly or only with one parent.
What the researchers concludedThe authors concluded that the practical stress of moving between homes did not outweigh the advantages associated with maintaining everyday relationships and resources in both parental households in this sample.
Read it with this limit in mind Cross-sectional design cannot establish causation
Fifty moves a year: Is there an association between joint physical custody and psychosomatic problems in children?
Malin Bergström, Emma Fransson, Bitte Modin, Marie Berlin, Per A. Gustafsson & Anders Hjern (2015). Fifty moves a year: Is there an association between joint physical custody and psychosomatic problems in children? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 69(8), 769–774. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2014-205058
2018ObservationalShared parentingHow did preschool children in shared care compare?
Malin Bergström, Emma Fransson, Helena Fabian, Anders Hjern, Anna Sarkadi & Raziye Salari
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Children in shared care had fewer reported psychological symptoms than children living mostly or only with one parent. Parents and preschool teachers both reported results in the same direction, although the differences were modest.
What the researchers concludedThe authors reported that joint physical custody was not associated with greater psychological symptoms in preschool children and that both parent and teacher reports favoured joint care over mostly or only one-parent residence.
Read it with this limit in mind Cross-sectional design cannot establish causation
Preschool children living in joint physical custody arrangements show less psychological symptoms than those living mostly or only with one parent
Malin Bergström, Emma Fransson, Helena Fabian, Anders Hjern, Anna Sarkadi & Raziye Salari (2018). Preschool children living in joint physical custody arrangements show less psychological symptoms than those living mostly or only with one parent. Acta Paediatrica, 107(2), 294–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.14004